Earthquake - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 32 Words: 9529 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Abstract Earthquake is an independent natural phenomenon of vibration of the ground which can become dangerous mainly when it is considered in relation with structures. Earthquakes can be very weak, without even realizing them but (they) can also be strong enough to result serious damages to buildings which can lead to injures or even loss of human lives. In order to avoid any structural damage the legislation sets conditions on the building design. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Earthquake" essay for you Create order For that purpose, Eurocode 8 is established in European countries and sets up all the appropriate criteria and measures for the design of buildings for earthquake resistance (Eurocode 8 is established in Europe and suggests 4 different methods of analysis.) In this project the response of eight buildings is examined (investigated) under seismic excitation. Firstly, is examined the case of four buildings (1 storey, 2 storey, 3 storey and 4 storey) where all the storeys are facsimile (replica). Afterwards, is examined the case of four buildings (again 1-4 storeys) where while the storeys of each building are increased, the mass, the stiffness and the height of each floor are decreased. Both the lateral method of analysis and the modal response spectrum analysis are used as recommended by EC8 to calculate the inter-storey drifts, the total shear forces and the overturning moments at the base of each building. The results are plotted and compared so that useful outcomes can be obtained. 1. Introduction One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severe earthquake and its terrible aftereffects especially when they are associated with structures. An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain that has accumulated over a long time. Earthquake intensity and magnitude are the most common used parameters in order to understand and compare different earthquake events.( are the most common parameters used to appreciate and compare.) In recent years have been giving increasing attention to the design of buildings for earthquake resistance. Specific (particular) legislation is (have been) established to make structures able to resist at any seismic excitation. In Europe, Eurocode 8 explains how to make buildings able to resist to earthquakes, and recommends the use of linear and non-linear methods for the seismic design of the buildings Simple structures can be modelled either as equivalent single degree of freedom systems (SDOF) or as a combination of SDOF systems. In this project 8 different buildings with a variation either on the number of storeys or on their characteristics are simulated as a combination of SDOF systems for which the mode shapes and their corresponding eigenfrequencies and periods are calculated. Afterwards the fundamental frequency is obtained for each case and the elastic design is used in order to obtain the base shear forces and the overturning moments. (INELASTIC DESIGN AND LATERAL FORCE METHOD) 2. Literature review 2.1 Introduction to earthquake engineering Definition and earthquake derivation or generation or creation or production or formation or genesis The lithosphere is the solid part of Earth which includes or consists of the crust and the uppermost mantle. The sudden movement of the earths lithosphere is called earthquake (technical name seism). Fractures in Earths crust where sections of rock have slipped past each other are called Faults. Most earthquakes occur along Faults. Generally, earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of built-up stress within rocks along geologic faults or by the movement of magma in volcanic areas. The theory of plate tectonics provides geology with a comprehensive theory that explains how the Earth works. The theory states that Earths outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces called plates: the African, North American, South American, Australian- Indian, Eurasian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several subcontinental plates also exist, including the Caribbean, Arabian, Nazca, Philippines and Cocos plates. Boundaries of tectonic plates are found at the edge of the lithospheric plates and can be of various forms, depending on the nature of relative movements. By their distinct motions, three main types can be characterized. The three types are: subduction zones (or trenches), spreading ridges (or spreading rifts) and transform faults.. convergent, divergent and conservative. At subduction zone boundaries, plates move towards each other and the one plate subducts underneath the other ( : one plate is overriding another, thereby forcing the other into the mantle beneath it.) The opposite form of movement takes place at spreading ridge boundaries. At these boundaries, two plates move away from one another. As the two move apart, molten rock is allowed to rise from the mantle to the surface and cool down to form part of the plates. This, in turn, causes the growth of oceanic crust on either side of the vents. As the plates continue to move, and more crust is formed, the ocean basin expands and a ridge system is created. Divergent boundaries are responsible in part for driving the motion of the plates. At transform fault boundaries, plate material is neither created nor destroyed at these boundaries, but rather plates slide past each other. Transform faults are mainly associated with spreading ridges, as they are usually formed by surface movement due to perpendicular spreading ridges on either side. Earthquake Location When an earthquake occurs, one of the first questions is where was it?. An earthquakes location may tell us what fault it was on and where the possible damage most likely occurred. The hypocentre of an earthquake is its location in three dimensions: latitude, longitude, and depth. The hypocentre (literally meaning: below the center from the Greek ), or focus of the earthquake, refers to the point at which the rupture initiates and the first seismic wave is released. As an earthquake is triggered, the fault is associated with a large area of fault plane. The point directly above the focus, on the earths surface where the origin of an earthquake above ground. The epicentre is the place on the surface of the earth under which an earthquake rupture originates, often given in degrees of latitude (north-south) and longitude (east-west). The epicentre is vertically above the hypocentre. The distance between the two points is the focal depth. The location of any station or observation can be described relative to the origin of the earthquake in terms of the epicentral or hypocentral distances. Propagation of seismic waves Seismic waves are the energy generated by a sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an artificial explosion that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs. There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two most important types of seismic waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves travel deep within the earth and surface waves travel near the surface of the earth. Body waves: There are two types of body waves: P-waves (also pressure waves) and S-waves (also shear waves). P-waves travel through the Earth as longitudinal waves whose compressions and rarefactions resemble those of a sound wave. The name P-wave comes from the fact that this is the fastest kind of seismic wave and, consequently, it is the first or Primary wave to be detected at a seismograph. Speed depends on the kind of rock and its depth; usually they travel at speeds between 1.5 and 8 kilometers per second in the Earths crust. P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do. P waves shake the ground in the direction they are propagating, while S waves shake perpendicularly or transverse to the direction of propagation. The P-wave can move through solids, liquids or gases. Sometimes animals can hear the P-waves of an earthquake S-waves travel more slowly, usually at 60% to 70% of the speed of P waves. The name S-wave comes from the fact that these slower waves arrive Secondary after the P wave at any observation point. S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves, so that particles move in a direction perpendicular to that of wave propagation. Depending in whether this direction is along a vertical or horizontal plane, S-waves are subcategorized into SV and SH-waves, respectively. Because liquids and gases have no resistance to shear and cannot sustain a shear wave, S-waves travel only through solids materials. The Earths outer core is believed to be liquid because S-waves disappear at the mantle-core boundary, while P-waves do not. (3: https://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/nat_hazards/nat_hazards.html) Surface waves: The surface waves expand, as the name indicates, near the earths surface. The amplitudes of surface waves approximately decrease exponentially with depth. Motion in surface waves is usually larger than in body waves therefore surface waves tend to cause more damage. They are the slowest and by far the most destructive of seismic waves, especially at distances far from the epicenter. Surface waves are divided into Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Rayleigh waves, also known as ground roll, are the result of an incident P and SV plane waves interacting at the free surface and traveling parallel to that surface. Rayleigh waves (or R-waves) took their name from (named for) John Strutt, Lord Rayleigh who first described them in 1885 ( who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885) and they are an important kind of surface wave. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the R-wave, which can be much larger than the other waves. In Rayleigh waves the particles of soil move vertically in circular or elliptical paths, just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. As Rayleigh wave particle motion is only found in the vertical plane, this means that they most commonly found on the vertical component of seismograms. The Rayleigh equation is: Love waves (also named Q waves) are surface seismic waves that cause horizontal shifting of the earth during an earthquake. They move the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at right angles to the direction of propagation. Love waves took their name from A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. Love waves are the result from the interaction with SH-waves. They travel with a slower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves, their speed relate to the frequency of oscillation. Earthquake size: Earthquake measurement is not a simple problem and it is hampered by many factors. The size of an earthquake can be quantified in various ways. The intensity and the magnitude of an earthquake are terms that were developed in an attempt to evaluate the earthquake phenomenon and they are the most commonly used terms to express the severity of an earthquake. Earthquake intensity: Intensity is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. It varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter. Earthquake magnitude: The magnitude is the most often cited measure of an earthquakes size. The most common method of describing the size of an earthquake is the Richter magnitude scale, ML. This scale is based on the observation that, if the logarithm of the maximum displacement amplitudes which were recorded by seismographs located at various distances from the epicenter are put on the same diagram and this is repeated for several earthquakes with the same epicentre, the resulting curves are parallel to each other. This means that if one of these earthquakes is taken as the basis, the coordinate difference between that earthquake and every other earthquake, measures the magnitude of the earthquake at the epicentre. Richter defined as zero magnitude earthquake one which is recorded with 1m amplitude at a distance of 100 km. Therefore, the local magnitude ML of an earthquake is based on the maximum trace amplitude A and can be estimated from the relation: ML= log A log A (3) Where A is the amplitude of the zero magnitude earthquake (ML=0). The Richter magnitude scale can only be used when seismographs are within 600 km of the earthquake. For greater distances, other magnitude scales have been defined. The most current scale is the moment magnitude scale MW, which can be used for a wide range of magnitudes and distances. Two main categories of instruments are used for the quantitative evaluation (estimation, assessment) of the earthquake phenomenon: the seismographs which record the displacement of the ground as a function of time, and the accelerographs (or accelerometers) which record the acceleration of the ground as a function of time, producing accelerograms. X the accelerogram of the 1940 El Centro earthquake. For every earthquake accelerogram, elastic or linear acceleration response spectrum diagrams can be calculated. (obtained, estimated) The response spectrum of an earthquake is a diagram of the peak values of any of the response parameters (displacement, acceleration or velocity) as a function of the natural vibration period T of the SDOF system, subjected to the same seismic input. All these parameters can be plotted together in one diagram which is called the tripartite plot (also known as four coordinate paper). 2.2 Earthquake and Structures simulation 2.2.1 Equation of motion of SDOF system Introduction Vibration is the periodic motion or the oscillation of an elastic body or a medium, whose state of equilibrium has been disturbed. : whose position of equilibrium has been displaced. There are two types of vibrations, free vibration and forced vibration. Vibration can be classified as either free or forced. A structure is said to be in a state of free vibration when it is disturbed from its static equilibrium by given a small displacement or deformation and then released and allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic excitation. Number of Degrees of Freedom (DOF) is the number of the displacements that are needed to define the displaced position of the masses relative to their original position. Simple structures can be idealised as a system with a lumped mass m supported by a massless structure with stiffness k. It is assumed that the energy is dissipated through a viscous damper with damping coefficient c. Only one displacement variable is required in order to specify the position of the mass in this system, so it is called Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system. Undamped Free Vibration of SDOF systems Furthermore, if there is no damping or resistance in the system, there will be no reduction to the amplitude of the oscillation and theoretically the system will vibrate forever. Such a system is called undamped and is represented in the below: By taking into consideration the inertia force fin and the elastic spring force fs the equation of the motion is given by: fin + fs = 0 m+ ku = 0 Considering the initial conditions u(0) and (0), where u(0) is the displacement and (0) is the velocity at the time zero, the equation (4) has the general solution: u(t) = u(0) cosnt + sinnt where n is the natural frequency of the system and is given by, n = (6) The natural period and the natural frequency can be defined by the above equations: Tn = (7) fn = (8) Viscously damped Free Vibration of SDOF systems The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the damping force fD, the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = 0 (9) Dividing by m the above equation gives: + 2n+ 2u = 0 (10) where is the critical damping and is given by: = (11) and Cc is the critical damping ratio given by: Cc = 2mn * If 1 or c Cc the system is overdamped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating. * If = 1 or c = Cc the system is critically damped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating, but at a slower rate. * If 1 or c Cc the system is underdamped. The system oscillates about its equilibrium position with continuously decreasing amplitude. Taking into account that all the structures can be considered as underdamped systems, as typically their damping ratio is less than 0.10 the equation (9) for the initial conditions u (0) and (0) gives the solution below: U (t) = e[u(0)cosn+[.+sinDt] (13) where D is the natural frequency of damped vibration and is given by: D = n (14) Hence the natural period is: TD = (15) Undamped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ ku = f(t) (16) where f(t) = f0 sint is the maximum value of the force with frequency By imposing the initial conditions u(0) and (0) the equation (16) has a general solution: u(t) = u(0)cosnt + sinnt + sint (17) Damped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs, the damping force fD and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = f(t) (18) where f(t) = f0 sint The particular solution of equation (18) is: up = Csint + Dcost (19) And the complementary solution of equation (18) is: (20) uc = e(AcosDt + Bsinnt) (20) 2.2.2 Equation of motion of MDOF system The equation of motion of a MDOF elastic system is expressed by: M+ C+ Ku = -MAI(t) (21) where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, u is the acceleration vector, u is the velocity vector and u is the displacement vector. Finally, AI is a vector with all the elements equal to unity and ug(t) is the ground acceleration. 2.2 Earthquake and Structures simulation 2.2.1 Equation of motion of SDOF system Introduction Vibration is the periodic motion or the oscillation of an elastic body or a medium, whose state of equilibrium has been disturbed. : whose position of equilibrium has been displaced. There are two types of vibrations, free vibration and forced vibration. Vibration can be classified as either free or forced. A structure is said to be in a state of free vibration when it is disturbed from its static equilibrium by given a small displacement or deformation and then released and allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic excitation. Number of Degrees of Freedom (DOF) is the number of the displacements that are needed to define the displaced position of the masses relative to their original position. Simple structures can be idealised as a system with a lumped mass m supported by a massless structure with stiffness k. It is assumed that the energy is dissipated through a viscous damper with damping coefficient c. Only one displacement variable is required in order to specify the position of the mass in this system, so it is called Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system. Undamped Free Vibration of SDOF systems Furthermore, if there is no damping or resistance in the system, there will be no reduction to the amplitude of the oscillation and theoretically the system will vibrate forever. Such a system is called undamped and is represented in the below: By taking into consideration the inertia force fin and the elastic spring force fs the equation of the motion is given by: fin + fs = 0 m+ ku = 0 Considering the initial conditions u(0) and (0), where u(0) is the displacement and (0) is the velocity at the time zero, the equation (4) has the general solution: u(t) = u(0) cosnt + sinnt where n is the natural frequency of the system and is given by, n = (6) The natural period and the natural frequency can be defined by the above equations: Tn = (7) fn = (8) Viscously damped Free Vibration of SDOF systems The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the damping force fD, the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = 0 (9) Dividing by m the above equation gives: + 2n+ 2u = 0 (10) where is the critical damping and is given by: = (11) and Cc is the critical damping ratio given by: Cc = 2mn * If 1 or c Cc the system is overdamped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating. * If = 1 or c = Cc the system is critically damped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating, but at a slower rate. * If 1 or c Cc the system is underdamped. The system oscillates about its equilibrium position with continuously decreasing amplitude. Taking into account that all the structures can be considered as underdamped systems, as typically their damping ratio is less than 0.10 the equation (9) for the initial conditions u (0) and (0) gives the solution below: U (t) = e[u(0)cosn+[.+sinDt] (13) where D is the natural frequency of damped vibration and is given by: D = n (14) Hence the natural period is: TD = (15) Undamped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ ku = f(t) (16) where f(t) = f0 sint is the maximum value of the force with frequency By imposing the initial conditions u(0) and (0) the equation (16) has a general solution: u(t) = u(0)cosnt + sinnt + sint (17) Damped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs, the damping force fD and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = f(t) (18) where f(t) = f0 sint The particular solution of equation (18) is: up = Csint + Dcost (19) And the complementary solution of equation (18) is: uc = (AcosDt + Bsinnt) (20) 2.2.2 Equation of motion of MDOF system The equation of motion of a MDOF elastic system is expressed by: M+ C+ Ku = -MAI(t) (21) where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, u is the acceleration vector, u is the velocity vector and u is the displacement vector. Finally, AI is a vector with all the elements equal to unity and g(t) is the ground acceleration. 3. Description of the Method 3.1 Simplified Multi-Storey Shear Building Model It is almost impossible to predict precisely which seismic action a structure will undergo during its life time. Each structure must be designed to resist at any seismic excitation without failing. For this reason each structure is designed to meet the requirements of the design spectrum analysis based in EC8. Also some assumptions are necessary in order to achieve the best and the simplest idealization for each multi store building. Initially it is assumed that the mass of each floor is lumped at the centre of the floor and the columns are massless. The floor beams are completely rigid and incompressible; hence the floor displacement is being transferred equally to all the columns. The columns are flexible in horizontal displacement and rigid in vertical displacement, while they are provided with a fully fixed support from the floors and the ground. The building is assumed to be symmetric about both x and y directions with symmetric column arrangement. The consequence of this is tha t the centre of the mass of each floor to coincide with the centre of the stiffness of each floor. The position of this centre remains stable up the entire height of the building. Finally, it is assumed that there are no torsional effects for each of the floors. If all the above assumptions are used the building structure is idealised as a model where the displacement at each floor is described by one degree of freedom. Thus, for a jth storey building, j degrees of freedom required to express the total displacement of the building. The roof of the building has always to be considered as a floor. The mass matrix M is a symmetric diagonal nxn matrix for a n-storey building and is given below. Each diagonal value in the matrix represents the total mass of one beam and its two corresponding columns which are assumed to be lumped at each level. M = Stiffness method is used to formulate the stiffness matrix. K is the lateral stiffness of each column and is given by the relationship: K = (22) where EI is the flexural stiffness of a column. The lateral stiffness of each column is clamped at the ends and is imposed in a unit sway. The stiffness of each floor is the sum of the lateral force of all columns in the floor. The stiffness matrix is for a n-storey building is: K = In order to calculate the natural modes of the vibration, the system is assumed that vibrates freely. Thus, g(t)=0, which for systems without damping (c=0) the equation (21) specializes to: M+ Ku = 0 (23) The displacement is assumed to be harmonic in time, this is: = -2Ueit (24) Hence equation (23) becomes: (K 2M)U = 0 (25) The above equation has the trivial solution u=0. For non trivial solutions, u0 the determinant for the left hand size must be zero. That is: |K 2 M| = 0 (26) This condition leads to a polynomial in terms of 2 with n roots, where n is the size of matrices and vectors as cited above. These roots are called eigenvalues. By applying the equation (6) (7), the natural frequency and the natural period of vibration for each mode shape can be determined. Each eigenvalue has a relative eigenvector which represent the natural ith mode shape. After the estimation of the eigenvector in order to compare the mode shapes, scale factors are applied to natural modes to standarise their elements associated with various degrees of freedom (X). This process is called normalization. Hence, after the estimation of the eigenvectors each mode is normalised so that the biggest value is X: eigenvector notation. unity. The eigenvectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal. This aspect is expressed by the following expression: UiTKUij = UiTMUij (27) The classical eigenvalue problem has the following form: (M-1K I) u = 0 (28) where =2 and I is the identity matrix. EC8 suggests that the response in two modes i and j can be assumed independent of each other when Tj 0.9 Ti where Ti and Tj are the periods of the modes i and j respectively (always Ti Tj). The calculated fundamental period can be checked by the equation that EC8 suggests: T = Ct*H3/4 where T is the fundamental period of the building, Ct is a coefficient and H is the total height of the building; this expression is valid buildings that their total height is not more than forty metres 3.2 Elastic Analysis The response method is used to estimate the maximum displacement (uj), pseudo- velocity (j) and acceleration (j) for each calculated natural frequency. It is assumed that the MDOF system oscillates in each of its modes independently and displacements, velocities and accelerations can be obtained for each mode separately considering modal responses as SDOF responses. Each maximum, displacement velocity and acceleration read from the design spectrum is multiplying by the participation factor i to re-evaluate the maximum values expressed ujmax, jmax, jmax respectively. The participation factor i is defined by the following equation: (28) where UijT is the transpose vector of each of the mode vectors, M is the mass matrix, AI is the unit vector and Uij is the mode shape vector. The actual maximum displacements of the jth mode are given by: u = ujmaxUj Afterwards, the root-mean-square (RMS) approximation is used in order to calculate the maximum displacement for each floor. In this approach, all the maximum values for each mode, are squared and summed and their square root is derived. If we let Dmax be the maximum displacement then: Dmax = (29) A very variable parameter to characterise the seismic behaviour of a building is the Inter-Storey Drift which can be obtained by the following equation: i = Di Di-1/hi (30) where Di, Di-1, are the horizontal displacements for two contiguous floors and hi is the corresponding height of the floor. The calculated values must be lower than 4% in order to agree with the Eurocode. Afterwards the horizontal inertia forces Fjs applied at each floor are obtained by applying the following equation: Fj = MUjjmax (31) where M is the mass matrix, Uj is the eigenvector for each mode and jmax is the maximum acceleration. As it is suggested from the EC8, the root-mean-approximation is used again in order to obtain the total lateral forces. EC8 suggests that the combined lateral force at each floor is given by the square root of the sum of the squares of each lateral force at each floor of all the modes. If we let Ftotal,i the maximum base shear force then: Ftotal,j = [1] (32) where Fij is the lateral force at floor i of the mode j. Once the total lateral forces and the shear forces have been obtained, the maximum overturning moment is calculated. 3.3 Inelastic Analysis The inelastic response spectra are generally obtained by the scaling of the elastic design spectra via the use of response modification factors. No effect of the energy absorption was assumed in the structure for the calculated values by using the elastic design spectrum. By introducing the ductility factor this parameter is taking into consideration. Newmark has described the ductility parameter as the ratio of maximum displacement to the displacement at yield. Apparently when yielding does not take place the concept of ductility is not relevant and is taken equal to unity. he system is described by the damping ratio , the natural frequency n, and the ductility factor . In order to calculate the new set of values of acceleration, displacement and velocity the design response spectrum has to be constructed. Newmarks procedure leads to the construction of two modified spectra. 1. For maximum acceleration: In this case the elastic design spectrum is reduced by the appropriate coefficients. The acceleration region of the graph is multiplied by the following factor: (33) While the displacement region is multiplied by: (34) X: Construction of the inelastic maximum acceleration design spectrum. Where AB = [AB] And CD = [CD] 2. For maximum displacement: In this case the elastic design spectrum is increased by the appropriate coefficients. The inelastic maximum displacement spectrum is constructed and is presented in X. As it is observed AB is the same as the elastic spectrum, while CD and EF are each times CD and EF on the acceleration scale. Once the construction of both the above inelastic design spectra is completed, a new set of values of acceleration and displacement can be obtained. Each displacement and acceleration read from the spectrum is multiplying by the participation factor i, in order to modify the calculated values. After the re-evaluation of the displacement and the accelerations the procedure is the same as in the elastic analysis. The participation factors remain stable for the inelastic analysis as the ductility factor does not affect them. The actual maximum accelerations and displacements of the jth mode can be obtained by applying the equation (X) and then by applying the RMS approximation. Herein, the inter-storey drift and the lateral forces FJs applied to each floor can be obtained by using the equations (X) and (X) respectively. Once the total lateral forces and the shear forces have been obtained, the maximum overturning moment is calculated. 4 Results In this project two different cases are examined: 1. Four buildings with a variation in the number of storeys and differentiation in their characteristics. 2. Four buildings from one until four storeys where all the levels are identical between them. Case 1: Firstly, a one storey building is examined and the elastic and inelastic responses are analysed. Afterwards one storey is added which means that two degrees of freedom are needed to describe the total displacement of the structure. The second floor of the building has redundant mass, height and stiffness. Afterwards, one more storey is added above the existing two storey building with even less mass, height and stiffness. The elastic and inelastic responses are then analysed for the three storey building. Finally, one more storey is added which is identical as the last one and the four storey building is analysed. One storey building The dimensions of both the building and its elements are presented in the below. X: (a) dimensions of the one storey building, (b) beam cross section (c) column cross section. By applying the equation (22) stiffness K can be obtained and the calculated value is represented below: K = 9.6*107 Afterwards, by applying the equation (26) the eigenvalue 2 is obtained as. The natural frequency, which in this case is the fundamental frequency as well, is obtained by applying the equation (6) and the period by applying the equation (7). The calculated values are represented in the table below: Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 192 2.205 0.453 Table X: Eigenvalue, Frequency and Period for the one storey building. Elastic Analysis The maximum displacement, Pseudo-Velocity and Acceleration are obtained from the elastic design spectrum as: Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 0.750 0.092 0.636 Table X: Maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the one storey building. The Inter- Storey Drift is obtained in percentages and it is =1.840 %. Afterwards, the maximum base shear force and the maximum overturning moment for the elastic analysis are represented in Table X. Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 3.120*106 2.560*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the one storey building. Inelastic Analysis The maximum displacement and Acceleration are obtained from the inelastic design spectrum as: Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 0.193 0.123 Table X: Maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the one storey building. The Inter- Storey Drift is obtained in percentages and it is =3.860 %. The maximum base shear force and the maximum overturning moment for the inelastic analysis are calculated and presented below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 6.033*106 1.560*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the one storey building (Inelastic design) Two storey building One floor is added above the existing one storey building. The height of the new floor, the mass and the X EI are reduced as it is shown in the below. The mass matrix M for the above building is a symmetric, diagonal 22 matrix and is given below: The stiffness matrix is derived applying equation (22) to the general form of stiffness matrix ( 15). For a 2 storey building, the stiffness matrix K is a symmetric 22 matrix: By applying the equation x to x the stiffness matrix is obtained. to By applying the stiffness method to a 2 storey building, the stiffness matrix K which is a symmetric 22 matrix, becomes: By using the equation (6) (7), the natural frequency and the natural period of vibration for each mode shape can be determined. The calculated eigenvalues, and the related natural frequencies and periods are given in the table below: Mode Shape Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 1 93.026 1.535 0.651 2 773.974 4.428 0.226 Table X: Eigenvalues, Frequencies and Periods for the 2 storey building. The modes of the shape and their corresponding periods are shown below: Using the method of normalisation the eigenvectors become: The two different mode shapes for the 2 storey building are presented below graphically. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.535 0.750 0.113 0.510 2 4.428 0.729 0.045 1.080 Table X: Maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the 2 storey building. The two calculated participation factors is are represented in the table below: 1 2 1.137 0.145 Table X: Participation Factors. The maximum displacement, Pseudo-Velocity and Acceleration from Table X are multiplied by the respective participation factors from Table X. The scaled parameters of the motion are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.535 0.852 0.128 0.589 2 4.428 0.106 6.541*10-3 1.158 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors. By applying the root-mean-square (RMS) approximation (equation 29) the maximum displacement can be obtained for both of the floors: D1 = 0.097 m for the first floor and D2 = 0.129 m for the second floor. Afterwards the Inter- Storey Drift is obtained in percentages for both of the floors and it is 1=1.936 % for the first one and 2 = 0.795 % for the second. The above values are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated by applying the root-mean-approximation and the results are presented in the above table: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 4.468*106 3.168*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 2 storey building. Inelastic Analysis The inelastic maximum acceleration and the inelastic maximum displacement design spectra are constructed by using a ductility factor of 5 (=5). Hence the acceleration and the displacement are re-evaluated. The results are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.535 0.198 0.100 2 4.428 0.100 0.172 Table X: Calculated displacements and accelerations for each mode (Inelastic design). Afterwards, each displacement and acceleration s multiplied by the respective participation factor from Table (X) and the scaled parameters are given below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.535 0.225 0.114 2 4.428 0.015 0.025 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors (Inelastic design). Herein, the Inter-Storey Drift is obtained in percentages for both of the floors and it is: 1=3.397 % for the first one and 2 = 1.390 % for the second. It is observed an increment at the above values comparing them with the corresponding values of the elastic analysis but they are still in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 8.657*105 6.114*106 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 2 storey building (Inelastic design). As it is observed, there is a noticeable decrease of the values in Table (X) comparing them with the corresponding values from the elastic design in Table(x). As it is shown, the ductility factor reduces the total shear force and the total overturning moment of the building. 3. Three storey building One floor is added above the existing two storey building. The height of the new floor, the mass and the stiffness are reduced. The below represents the dimensions for the three storey building and its elements. The mass matrix M for a 3 storey building is a symmetric, diagonal 33 matrix and is given below: The stiffness matrix is derived applying equation (22) to the general form of stiffness matrix ( 15). For a 3 storey building, the stiffness matrix K is a symmetric 33 matrix: By using the equation (6) (7), the natural frequency and the natural period of vibration for each mode shape can be determined. The calculated eigenvalues, and the corresponding natural frequencies and periods are given in the above table: Mode Shape Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 1 70.673 1.338 0.747 2 625.839 3.982 0.251 3 2.17*103 7.414 0.135 Table X: Eigenvalues, Frequencies and Periods for the 3 storey building. The modes of the shape and their corresponding periods are shown below: Using the method of normalisation the eigenvectors become: The different mode shapes for the 3 storey building are presented below graphically. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.338 0.750 0.123 0.477 2 3.982 0.750 0.062 1.000 3 7.414 0.345 0.010 1.087 Table X: maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the 3 storey building. The three calculated participation factors is are represented in the table below: 1 2 3 1.165 0.213 0.014 Table X: Participation Factors. The maximum displacement, Pseudo-Velocity and Acceleration from Table X are multiplied by the respective participation factors from Table X. The scaled parameters of the motion are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.338 0.874 0.143 0.556 2 3.982 0.160 0.013 0.213 3 7.414 4.705*10-3 1.364*10-4 0.015 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors. Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.098m, D2 = 0.136m and D3 = 0.144m 1 = 1.951 %, 2 = 0.958 % and 3 = 0.263 % The above values of the Inter Storey Drift are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculating by applying the root-mean-approximation and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 5.005*106 4.093*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 3 storey building. Inelastic Analysis The inelastic maximum acceleration and the inelastic maximum displacement design spectra are constructed by using a ductility factor of 5 (=5). Hence the acceleration and the displacement are re-evaluated. The results are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.338 0.200 0.090 2 3.982 0.131 0.172 3 7.414 0.022 0.172 Table X: Calculated displacements and accelerations for each mode (Inelastic design). Afterwards, each displacement and acceleration is multiplied by the respective participation factor from Table (X) and the scaled parameters are given below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.338 0.233 0.105 2 3.982 0.028 0.037 3 7.414 3*10-4 2.435*10-3 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors (Inelastic design). Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.160m, D2 = 0.221m and D3 = 0.234m 1 = 3.192 %, 2 = 1.536 % and 3 = 0.439 % It is observed an increment at the values of the Inter-Storey Drift comparing them with the corresponding values of the elastic analysis but they are still in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 9.439*105 7.721*106 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 3 storey building (Inelastic design). Four storey building One floor is added above the existing three storey building. The new floor has identical characteristics to the third floor. The below presents the dimensions for the four storey building and its elements. The mass matrix M is given below: The stiffness matrix K is: By using the equation (6) (7), the natural frequency and the natural period of vibration for each mode shapes can be determined. The calculated eigenvalues, and the corresponding natural frequencies and periods are given in the above table: Mode Shape Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 1 55.426 1.185 0.844 2 497.489 3.55 0.282 3 1.241*103 5.607 0.178 4 3.739*103 9.732 0.103 Table X: Eigenvalues, Frequencies and Periods for the 4 storey building. The modes of the shape and their corresponding periods are shown below: Using the method of normalisation the eigenvectors become: The different mode shapes for the 3 storey building are presented below graphically Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.185 0.750 0.123 0.477 2 3.55 0.750 0.069 0.919 3 5.607 0.519 0.026 1.087 4 9.732 0.119 0.002 0.636 Table X: maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the 2 storey building. The four calculated participation factors is are represented in the table below: 1 2 3 4 1.196 0.262 0.047 2.071*10-3 Table X: Participation Factors. The maximum displacement, Pseudo-Velocity and Acceleration from Table X are multiplied by the respective participation factors from Table X. The scaled parameters of the motion are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.185 0.897 0.248 0.102 2 3.55 0.197 0.041 0.045 3 5.607 0.024 2.760*10-3 8.047*10-3 4 9.732 2.464*10-3 1.242*10-5 2.360*10-3 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors. Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.09m, D2 = 0.129m, D3 = 0.14m and D4 = 0.148m 1 = 1.809 %, 2 = 0.963 %, 3 = 0.412 % and 4 = 0.222 %. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculating by applying the root-mean-approximation and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 1.044*106 9.964*106 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 4 storey building. Inelastic Analysis The inelastic design spectrum is used with a ductility factor of 5 (=5). Hence the acceleration and the displacement are re-evaluated. The results are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.185 0.207 0.085 2 3.55 0.156 0.172 3 5.607 0.059 0.172 4 9.732 0.006 0.114 Table X: Calculated displacements and accelerations for each mode (Inelastic design). Afterwards, each displacement and acceleration is multiplied by the respective participation factor from Table (X) and the scaled parameters are given below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.185 0.248 0.102 2 3.55 0.041 0.045 3 5.607 2.760*10-3 8.047*10-3 4 9.732 1.242*10-5 2.360*10-4 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors (Inelastic design). Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.155m, D2 = 0.217m, D3 = 0.238m and D4= 0.250 m 1 = 3.093 %, 2 = 1.561 %, 3 = 0.710 % and 4 = 0.399 % The values of the Inter-Storey Drift are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 9.439*105 7.721*106 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 4 storey building (Inelastic design). Then one floor is added above the existing building, which is a duplicate of the first one. Case 2: Four buildings with identical characteristics for all the floors: In this case the four buildings that will be examined they will have the exact same characteristics at all of the floors. The same procedure as in case one is followed in order to design four different building models able to resist at any seismic excitation. While the procedure is the same, only the final tables and the appropriate s for each case will be presented. The one storey building is the same as the one storey building of case one. Two storey building The dimensions of both the building and its elements are presented in the below. The mass matrix M is given below: The stiffness matrix is given below: The calculated eigenvalues, and the corresponding natural frequencies and periods are given in the above table: Mode Shape Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 1 73.337 1.363 0.734 2 502.663 3.568 0.280 Table X: Eigenvalues, Frequencies and Periods for the 2 storey building. The modes of the shape and their corresponding periods are shown below: Using the method of normalisation the eigenvectors become: T1= 0.734s T2= 0.280s The two different mode shapes for the 2 storey building are presented below graphically. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.363 0.750 0.118 0.497 2 3.568 0.750 0.067 0.921 Table X: Maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the 2 storey building. The two calculated participation factors is are represented in the table below: 1 2 1.171 0.276 Table X: Participation Factors. The scaled parameters of the motion are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.363 0.878 0.138 0.582 2 3.568 0.207 0.019 0.255 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors. Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.087 m and D2 = 0.139 m. 1=1.747 % and 2 = 1.025 %. The above values are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are given in the table below. Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 4.643*106 3.739*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 2 storey building. Inelastic Analysis The inelastic design spectrum is used with a ductility factor of 5 (=5). Hence the acceleration and the displacement are re-evaluated. The results are given in the table below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.363 0.199 0.086 2 3.568 0.151 0.172 Table X: Calculated displacements and accelerations for each mode (Inelastic design). Afterwards, each displacement and acceleration is multiplied by the respective participation factor from Table (X) and the scaled parameters are given below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.363 0.233 0.101 2 3.568 0.042 0.048 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors (Inelastic design). Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.150m and D2 = 0.234m 1 = 2.998 % and 2 = 1.690 % The values of the Inter-Storey Drift are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 8.041*105 6.471*106 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 2 storey building (Inelastic design). Three storey building g The below represents the dimensions for the two storey building and its elements. The mass matrix M is given below: The stiffness matrix K is: The calculated eigenvalues, and the corresponding natural frequencies and periods are given in the above table: Mode Shape Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 1 38.028 0.981 1.019 2 298.552 2.750 0.364 3 623.420 3.974 0.252 Table X: Eigenvalues, Frequencies and Periods for the 3 storey building. The modes of the shape and their corresponding periods are shown below: T1= 1.019s T2= 0.364s T3= 0.252s Using the method of normalisation the eigenvectors become: T1= 1.019s T2= 0.364s T3= 0.252s The three different mode shapes for the 3 storey building are presented below graphically Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.981 0.750 0.133 0.405 2 2.750 0.750 0.082 0.720 3 3.974 0.750 0.063 0.998 Table X: Maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the 3 storey building. The three calculated participation factors is are represented in the table below: 1 2 3 1.220 0.349 0.134 Table X: Participation Factors. The scaled parameters of the motion are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.981 0.915 0.162 0.494 2 2.750 0.262 0.029 0.251 3 3.974 0.101 8.451*10-3 0.134 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.078 m, D2 = 0.131 m and D3 = 1.164 m. 1=1.560 %, 2 = 1.061 % and 3=0.658. The above values are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 5.507*106 6.129*107 It is observed an increscent at the above values in table X comparing them with( se sxesi me) the corresponding calculated values in table X for the 2-storey building. Inelastic Analysis The inelastic maximum acceleration and the inelastic maximum displacement design spectra are constructed by using a ductility factor of 5 (=5). Hence the acceleration and the displacement are re-evaluated. The results are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.981 0.207 0.072 2 2.750 0.189 0.152 3 3.974 0.134 0.172 Table X: Calculated displacements and accelerations for each mode (Inelastic design). Afterwards, each displacement and acceleration is multiplied by the respective participation factor from Table (X) and the scaled parameters are given below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 1.338 0.253 0.088 2 3.982 0.066 0.053 3 7.414 0.018 0.023 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors (Inelastic design). Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.131m, D2 = 0.205m and D3 = 0.258m 1 = 2.623 %, 2 = 1.486 % and 3 = 1.055 % It is observed an increment at the values of the Inter-Storey Drift comparing them with the corresponding values of the elastic analysis but they are still in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 9.832*105 1.090*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 3 storey building (Inelastic design). 4. Four storey building The below represents the dimensions for the two storey building and its elements. The mass matrix M is given below: The stiffness matrix is: By using the equation (6) (7), the natural frequency and the natural period of vibration for each mode shapes can be determined. The calculated eigenvalues, and the corresponding natural frequencies and periods are given in the above table: Mode Shape Eigenvalue 2 (rad2/s2) Frequency (Hz) Period (s) 1 23.158 0.766 1.306 2 192 2.205 0.453 3 450.681 3.379 0.296 4 678.161 4.145 0.241 Table X: Eigenvalues, Frequencies and Periods for the 4 storey building. The modes of the shape and their corresponding periods are shown below: T1= 1.306s T2= 0.453 T3= 0.296s T4= 0.241s Using the method of normalisation the eigenvectors become: T1= 1.306s T2= 0.453 T3= 0.296s T4= 0.241s Maximum Displacement, Pseudo Velocity and Acceleration for the different frequencies Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.766 0.750 0.193 0.291 2 2.205 0.750 0.092 0.636 3 3.379 0.750 0.068 0.884 4 4.145 0.750 0.055 1.087 Table X: maximum Displacement, Pseudo- Velocity and Acceleration for the 4 storey building. The four calculated participation factors is are represented in the table below: 1 2 3 4 1.241 0.333 0.184 0.080 Table X: Participation Factors. The maximum displacement, Pseudo-Velocity and Acceleration from Table X are multiplied by the respective participation factors from Table X. The scaled parameters of the motion are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Pseudo- Velocity (m/s) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.766 0.931 0.240 0.361 2 2.205 0.250 0.031 0.212 3 3.379 0.138 0.012 0.162 4 4.145 0.060 4.381*10-3 0.087 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors. Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.090 m, D2 = 0.159 m, D3 = 0.211 m and D4 = 0.242 m. 1=1.792 % , 2 = 1.397 %, 3=1.030 % and 4=0.613 % for the last one. The above values are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are presented in the above table: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 5.218*106 7.363*107 Inelastic Analysis The inelastic design spectrum is used with a ductility factor of 5 (=5). Hence the acceleration and the displacement are re-evaluated. The results are given in the table below. Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.766 0.211 0.040 2 2.205 0.193 0.123 3 3.379 0.187 0.172 4 4.145 0.115 0.172 Table X: Calculated displacements and accelerations for each mode (Inelastic design). Afterwards, each displacement and acceleration is multiplied by the respective participation factor from Table (X) and the scaled parameters are given below: Mode Shape Frequency (Hz) Displacement (m) Acceleration (g) 1 0.766 0.262 0.050 2 2.205 0.064 0.041 3 3.379 0.034 0.032 4 4.145 9.160*10-3 0.014 Table X: Scaled parameters of the motion for each mode due to the participation factors (Inelastic design). Maximum displacement and the Inter Storey Drift for each floor are given below: D1 = 0.117m, D2 = 0.183m, D3 = 0.232m and D4= 0.271 m 1 = 2.335 %, 2 = 1.331 %, 3 = 0.983 % and 4 = 0.764 % The values of the Inter-Storey Drift are in agreement with the Eurocode as they are lower than 4%. The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment are calculated and the results are presented in the table below: Maximum Base Shear Force (N) Maximum Overturning Moment (Nm) 7.325*105 1.015*107 Table X: The Maximum Base Shear Force and the Maximum Overturning Moment for the 4 storey building (Inelastic design). 5 Discussion of results Graph 1 and Graph 2 below depict the variation of the fundamental frequency for multi storey buildings, against each multi storey building. In particular, it represents the fundamental frequency of 1, 2, 3, 4 storey building for each storey respectively. At the above graph it is observed that as the floors are increased the fundamental frequency is decreased. The peak value of the graph is f11= 2.205 Hz, and represents the fundamental frequency in the case of 1 storey building. Afterwards one storey is added to the existing building with different characteristics from the existing one and the two natural frequencies are calculated. The smallest frequency of these two is the fundamental frequency and is f12= 1.535 Hz. The same procedure is applied for the rest two buildings. One storey is added each time to the previous existing building and the fundamental frequency is calculated for each one. This gives the values f13= 1.338 Hz and f14= 1.185 Hz for 3 storey and 4 storey buildings respectively. By following the same procedure as in Graph 1 the fundamental frequencies are calculated for 1, 2, 3 and 4 storey buildings and plotted the results are represented in Graph 2. However, in this case as the floors are increased the mass, the height of the each floor and the stiffness remain the same as and each floor is a duplicate of the first floor. The peak value of the graph is f11=2.205 Hz, which represents the fundamental frequency. For 2, 3 and 4 storey buildings the fundamental frequencies are: f12=1.363 Hz, f13=0.982 Hz and f14=0.766 Hz respectively. At graph 1 and graph 2, is observed that as the floors are increased the fundamental frequencies are decreased. The value of fundamental frequency for one storey building has the same value in both cases, as the two buildings are two exact replicas. After that point, by comparing the two sets of results it is observed a variation of frequencies. There is a greater decrease in the fundamental frequency values for buildings with the same characteristics at each floor. The four following graphs depict the Inter Storey Drift Number of storeys relationship. In particular the Inter-storey Drift of the first floor of each building is plotted against the total number of storeys of the corresponding building. The first two graphs represent the results of the Inter-Storey Drift for the elastic analysis.

Gmo Case Study - 990 Words

Categories of GMOs (genetically modified organisms), such as plants, food, drugs, biological products, pesticides, microorganisms are regulated by a variety of US agencies, which include the US Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, the Food and Drug Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency. These agencies operate based on regulations set by the Plant Protection Act, the Federal Food, Drug, the Cosmetic Act, Public Health Service Act, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act, and the Toxic Substances Control Act. The legal production, development, and use, of GMOs must be accompanied by the authorization of the respective regulatory agency aforementioned. This involves an arduous†¦show more content†¦Utilitarianism is based upon the premise that a morally right action is an act that yields the most benefit. With this in mind, the use of GMOs is justified by some based on the theory that it is the remedy to the widespread loss of biodiversity and plant resources on the planet. On the other hand, the unstable conditions, combinations, and science of GMOs pose a risk to the environment and more importantly, humans. Based on theory, a utilitarian considering this case would emphasize the fact that the impacts of effects of GMOs should maximize the well-being of all. However, Fieser emphasizes that â€Å"we need to assess the beneficial consequences of actions as everyone is affected†(2015). In terms of â€Å"maximizing the well-being of all† even if the long-term risks of GMOs are unclear, unknown, or uncertain, any amount of potential harm, risk, or threat to anyone, person, or the environment as a whole, makes their use immoral. Furthermore, governmental agencies’ pause, ignorance, or lack thereof to better regulate, research, and investigate thoroughly the impacts of GMOs is clear and of grave concern. GMOs are not properly regulated in terms of safety measures as it pertains to food. As it pertains to risks to human health, concerns continue to mount regarding US governmental agencies due diligence in safety analysis of GMOs. For example, the FDA’s policy has been minimal based on their reliance of GMO producersShow MoreRelatedGmos Case Study1373 Words   |  6 Pagesof GMOs Different countries have different ways of managing GMOs. Some countries don’t have managed GMOs. The countries that have laws about GM Food focus on the risk evaluation for consumers. Usually, those countries also manage GMOs, environment issue, and trade (WHO, 2014). Today, the management of GMOs label is divided into four kinds: ï‚Ÿ Voluntary labeling. 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GMOs are crops whose genes have been artificially manipulated in a lab, this can be done by removing genes from anotherRead MoreNuclear Power Over Our Environment1125 Words   |  5 Pagesbeen using pesticides at a dangerous level wi th no regulations. GMO companies must be regulated because local citizens in the vicinity of the GMO farms have displayed signs of sickness caused by the pesticides GMO companies operate at unsafe levels, not enough studies have been shown to disprove any negative health effects, and the companies are manipulating Hawaii’s government to achieve their goals. Anti-GMO activists state that GMO companies are spraying too many pesticides in the vicinity of theRead MoreThe Negative Effects Of Genetically Modified Organisms1447 Words   |  6 Pagesmodified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms whose genetic material has been altered or manipulated using genetic engineering. According to the Grocery Manufacturers Association, between seventy percent and eighty percent of packaged food in grocery stores in America contain GMOs (Moodie). Americans can find GMOs in cereal, yogurt, corn, and many more food items. Although many GM crop producing companies promote GMOs as harmless, recent studies have proven otherwise. A study from The Journal ofRead MoreDangers Of Gmos971 Words   |  4 PagesWhy GMOs are Causing More Harm Than Good Ever since the incorporation of GMO crops into the modern diet, they have been hotly debated as evidence continues to surface indicating they may not be the miracle crops many scientists hoped for. There is sufficient evidence to indicate that GMOs pose an unnecessary risk to human health and the environment. Detrimental impacts of GMOs are seen from increased pesticide use, cultivation of harmful traits, and a general exacerbation of the very problems theyRead MoreAre Gmos Safe Or Harmful?1010 Words   |  5 Pagesknown as GMOs are becoming a popular topic of argument around the world. The question on everyone’s mind is whether GMOs are safe to consume and what effects they may possibly have. GMOS while becoming a topic today have been around for years now. Scientists have been genetically altering crops for years now and this idea has been around for some time. Nonetheless, GMOs are becoming the new wave of discussion among many. GMOs are needed today to help the food shor tage but first studies need to beRead MoreGenetically Modified Organisms Essay1405 Words   |  6 PagesGenetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms whose genetic material has been altered or manipulated using genetic engineering. According to the Grocery Manufacturers Association, between 70% and 80% of packaged food in grocery stores in America contain GMOs (Moodie). Americans can find GMOs in cereal, yogurt, corn, and many more food items. Although GMOs are promoted by many GM crop producing companies as harmless, recent studies have been proving otherwise. A study from the journal of FoodRead MoreAre Gmos Harmful Or Harmful?1115 Words   |  5 Pagesdown to the same idea: they can be very harmful. GMOs are included on this long list of things that can pose a risk to one’s health. GMOs, because of their unnatural modifications, create several health problems that could be reduced or completely avoided by consuming non-GMO products. GMOs are very harmful to one’s health, but in order to understand what they do to one’s health, it must first be stated what a GMO is and why they are produced. â€Å"GMOs, or genetically modified organisms, are plants or

BIO Quiz Free Essays

Three molecules of carbon dioxide. One atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen. 8 of In water, hydrogen bonding occurs between the hydrogen and an oxygen atom in the same molecule. We will write a custom essay sample on BIO Quiz or any similar topic only for you Order Now An oxygen atom in a different molecule. A hydrogen atom in a different molecule. A hydrogen atom in the same molecule. of Covalent bonds form when one atom ivies up; electrons shares; protons gives up; neutrons shares; electrons its with another 10 of 20 Water is an important solvent of life because it forms covalent bonds. It has cohesive properties. It forms hydrogen bonds. It is ionic. 11 of 20 Carbon is such an important molecule for life because it can form chemical bonds with a maximum of four other atoms. Hydrogen bond to so many other molecules. It can it forms ionic bonds. It can form isomers. 12 of pure water has a pH Of O; neither acidic nor basic 1; acidic 7; neither acidic nor basic 14; basic because it is 13 of 20 Hydrolysis could be correctly described as heating a compound to drive off excess water and concentrate its volume. Breaking of a long-chain compound into its subunits by adding water to the structure between its subunits. Constant removal of hydrogen atoms from a carbohydrate. None of the above. 14 of 20 Carbohydrate monomers are united into a polymer by means of dehydrogenation. Hydrolysis. Reverse osmosis. Dehydration synthesis. 15 of 20 Polysaccharides are made up of Amino acids. Nucleotides. Sugars. Lipids. 16 of 20 Butter is made of milkman and tends to be hard at room temperature. Which f the following could be used to make the butter softer at room temperature? Create more double bonds in the fatty acid chains Make fatty acid chains with fewer kinks Saturate the fatty acid chains Make the fatty acid chains longer 17 of 20 Proteins are made up of 18 of 20 An organic molecule that may contain the -NH group is a triglyceride. An enzyme. How to cite BIO Quiz, Papers

Cloning Essay Research Paper I choose this free essay sample

Cloning Essay, Research Paper I choose this article to grok the abilities which bioethics gives us. Through coevalss, engineering has advanced vastly. Though cloning is a new engineering to the populace, it has been around since 1978? The birth of Louise Brown, the first test-tube babe, whom generated great controversy. ? Society has a great concern toward the peculiar medical specialty known as cloning. Scientists claim, ? Through finds of disease-related cistrons, the Human Genome Project has brought hope that human enduring inflicted by familial diseases might be alleviated. ? This statement proves the fact that scientific discipline can extinguish disease, but at the same clip I believe that worlds making life is inappropriate. My positions about cloning are common with the Catholic Church. Pope John Paul II understands cloning to be a? wickedness in the eyes of the Catholic Church, and giving life should be left to God entirely. ? The latest interruption through in cloning was a sheep named Dolly, she had been cloned through here mother? s cistrons. We will write a custom essay sample on Cloning Essay Research Paper I choose this or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It took Roslin, ( a squad of scientists ) old ages of research and readying before Dolly? s birth became possible. Cloning is an tremendous measure for adult male in the scientific universe. With cognition such as this, scientists have monolithic power. Cloning duplicates a life being precisely, flinging as to how it? s encephalon maps. Peoples thought of cloning as to be a great tool in our universe today. One illustration I came across one twenty-four hours in the Toronto Star, was? imagine holding a squad full of Micheal Jordan? s? What the population failed to understand, was that a ringer of something carries all properties of the original except for the mental features. Looking back at the statement the squad would be indistinguishable physically, but mentally they may non play every bit good as the original Micheal Jordan. One more factor is sing whether cloning is ethical or non in our society. Many of the issues generated by promotions in the biological and medical scientific disciplines assistance in practical affairs, sometimes necessitating consent from authorities figures. Not all medical specialty or biological patterns are good, for illustration atomic engineering. Which includes such things as edifice bombs that can destruct half of the planet. A 2nd chilling item is that there are non many skilled scientists and they are scattered all around the universe, some non holding any control over what they create. If a scientist can non command his or her ain creative activity, how are we the society supposed to support ourselves from such formations. In decision cloning is non the most ethical thing to make. Sure scientific discipline is placed in front in its surveies, but the patterns may non be suited for the remainder of society. Numerous of occasions new engineering like this is introduced for the simple fact of giving a good name to engineering, without sing the affect it may hold on the great population. I merely hope that the more intelligent and advanced we become through the following coevalss, we keep a sense of control and non allow things acquire out of manus.